How Is the Periodic Table Organized Today

The periodic table is one of the most valuable tools for chemists and other scientists because it orders the chemical elements in a useful way. Once you understand how the modern periodic table is organized, youll be able to do much more than just look up element facts like their atomic numbers and symbols. Chart Organization The organization of the periodic table allows you to predict the properties of the elements based on their position on the chart. Heres how it works: Elements are listed in numerical order by  atomic number. The atomic number is the number of protons in an atom of that element. So element number 1 (hydrogen) is the first element. Every atom of hydrogen has 1 proton. Until a new element is discovered, the last element on the table is element number 118. Every atom of element 118 has 118 protons. This is the biggest difference between todays periodic table and Mendeleevs periodic table. The original table organized the elements by increasing atomic weight.Each horizontal row on the periodic table is called a period. There are seven periods on the periodic table. Elements in the same period all have the same electron ground state energy level. As you move from left to right across a period, elements transition  from displaying metal characteristics toward nonmetallic properties.Each vertical column on the periodic table is called a group. Elements belonging to one of the 18 groups will share similar properties. Atoms of each elem ent within a group have the same number of electrons in their outermost electron shell. For example, elements of the halogen group all have a valence of -1 and are highly reactive.There are two rows of elements found below the main body of the periodic table. They are placed there because there wasnt room to put them where they should go. These rows of elements, the lanthanides and actinides, are special transition metals. The top row goes with period 6, while the bottom row goes with period 7.Each element has its tile or cell in the periodic table. The exact information given for the element varies, but there is always the atomic number, the symbol for the element, and the atomic weight. The element symbol is a shorthand notation that is either one capital letter or a capital letter and a lowercase letter. The exception is the elements at the very end of the periodic table, which have placeholder names (until they are officially discovered and named) and three-letter symbols.The tw o main types of elements are metals and nonmetals. There are also elements with properties intermediate between metals and nonmetals. These elements are called metalloids or semimetals. Examples of groups of elements that are metals include alkali metals, alkaline earths, basic metals, and transition metals. Examples of groups of elements that are nonmetals are the nonmetals (of course), the halogens, and the noble gases. Predicting Properties Even if you dont know anything about a particular element, you can make predictions about it based on its position on the table and its relationship to elements that are familiar to you. For example, you may not know anything about the element osmium, but if you look at its position on the periodic table, youll see its located in the same group (column) as iron. This means the two elements share some common properties. You know iron is a dense, hard metal. You can predict osmium is also a dense, hard metal. As you progress in chemistry, there are other trends in the periodic table youll need to know: Atomic radius and ionic radius increase as you move down a group, but decrease as you move across a period.Electron affinity decreases as you move down a group, but increases as you move across a period until you get to the last column. The elements in this group, the noble gases, have practically no electron affinity.The related property, electronegativity, decreases going down a group and increases across a period. Noble gases have practically zero electronegativity  and electron affinity because they have complete outer electron shells.Ionization energy decreases as you move down a group, but increases moving across a period.Elements with the highest metallic character are located on the lower left side of the periodic table. Elements with the least metallic character (most nonmetallic) are on the upper right side of the table.

Deconstruction of an Advertisement Essay - 736 Words

COMM 10265 DECONSTRUCTING AN ADVERTISEMENT ASSIGNMENT Sexy Subaru Car Wash Sexy Subaru Car Wash Sexy Sumo Car-Wash Video.flv - YouTube Subaru puts a new Eastern satirical twist on the tradition Western sexy car wash in their advertisement for the Forrester which in place of Heidi Klum or Jessica Simpson sumo wrestlers scantily washing the new vehicle. This advertisement starts off with a dirty Forrester pulling into the car wash with seductive music playing in the background. Most audiences expect a group of supermodels in bikinis to come out and wash the car, however the elderly couple and the audience is surprised to see six sumo wrestlers come out in uniform to wash the car. The sumo wrestlers whip their rags and rub†¦show more content†¦This ad violates social and cultural norms by replacing beautiful women who normally would advertise cars with sumo wrestlers, a reference to the origin of the cars manufacturer. In an article published in Motor Authority it was quoted that Unlike the bikini-wearing models in other ads, youre not left wondering where the car is†¦If anything your eyes seek out the [ car], if only for aesthetic relief. (Lienert 2011) In this advertisement Subaru Canada is also portraying a sense of Japanese pride. Sumo wrestlers are honored in Japan and by replacing a Canadian or American supermodel with a symbol of Japanese pride, the sumo wrestler. This connects viewers with the pride of a Japanese manufactured car that the ad is trying to sell. What else is the ad selling? Subaru Canada is selling a new type of car advertisement which shows deviance to societal norms by changing the image of what people think is sexy. Sex sells is a long standing phrase that can be used to define the advertising industry and before this commercial was released many manufacturers marketed â€Å"sexy† car advertisements using Sports Illustrated swimsuit models or models of a similar stature. 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Project Execution Planning and Management - Free Samples to Students

Question: Discuss about the Project Execution Planning and Management. Answer: Introduction: Design of a Bid Build: This particular project holds three different phases such as designing phase, bidding phase and the building phase. In order to complete the project successfully it is necessary to maintain all three of these phases properly. At the very initiation phase the project designer should hire an architect who will help to design the plan of the project. For designing and bidding the project all the necessary steps are required to be maintained by the project designer. In order to complete the project successfully or without any kind of error it is necessary for the project architect to keep in continuous touch with the project owner. The project deliverable includes. The project could move further only after getting confirmation from the project owner. However, if the project owner does not give any such confirmation then, the project team members will not be able to continue the project. For taking up the project tender the project owner is required to take part in the bidding session. However, after the project contractor will be selected the documentation bid cannot be changes at all. For starting the work on the particular tender, all the contractors associated to the tender are needed to give proper permission. In order to produce an effective document it is very much necessary for the project contractor to make proper auction on the project. On the other hand, the project subcontractor takes relevant tender those are required to implement the project successfully. However, at the end of the project proper documentation is required to be done then, accurate working timelines is also required to be followed by the management authority of the business organization to generate expected project outcome. In order to complete the project successfully it is necessary to share every project art. For complete the project successfully it is necessary that all the bid documents are shared with the auction. For successful completion of the project, the project owner, contractors and the project architects are required to keep connected to the project properly. Even from the project start up to the end of the project they are required to work as a collaborative team. In order to complete the project the contractors and the sub contractors cannot be changed. With any out sided contractors the project details cannot be discussed. Even no such bidding can also be done with the other project contractors. With the help of this approach the project could be executed as a collaborative project. It also helps to build relationship between the project owners and the architects. In order to gain long term success from the project document it is necessary to consider partnership. While implementing the construction level design or planning of the project, it is very much necessary for the project owner to provide the project outcome. The best value that has been assigned for the project should be followed by the project owner. Not only this but also the project manager is needed to follow the lowest bidding based on their previous knowledge and skill. The project contractor should assign the project only based on the documentation. In order to gain effective success from the project, it is very much necessary for the project owners to consider every project components. For this particular project the components are as follows: Schedule for perfect delivery: After considering the project scope, it has been determined that, for successful implementation of the project proper schedule is needed to be developed. With the help of accurate schedule the work can be divided in smaller segment and it will reduce the work load from the project team members. The project schedule is divided in different segments such as project planning, project design. Not only this but also there are different bidding values will be rose in the project auction. Based on the project success criteria the lowest auction price is required to be selected by the management authority. Thus, adoption of lowest value is referred to as the most beneficial one. Innovation, creative design and project complexity: In order to reduce the project risks or project complexity, different new creative and innovative ideas are needed to be developed by the project manager to reduce the project complexity. Not only this but also for eliminating the risks project associated instruments and techniques are needed to be incorporated by the project manager. Initial risk assessment: During the implementation of the project different risks might occur. In the absolute preliminary phase, for developing the project proper risk evaluation approaches are needed to be implemented by the project manager. Not only this but also, the main primary objective of the construction project is to prepare and motivate the project workers to develop different approaches to mitigate the probable risks. During the project implementation of the project, this kind of risks might occur. Cost: Finance or commercial project budget is referred to as one of the most important aspect that is strictly required to be considered by the project owner before the official implementation of the project. Even a feasibility testing is also required to be made by the project manager, with the help of the feasibility study the project manager will be able to understand that whether the project is beneficial or not. Therefore, for successful completion of the project, total cost must be developed by the project manager. Experiences of the staffs and availability: Experiences of the consumers and competitors are the most helpful things to be considered by the contractors and project managers. The project owner must understand the project details and the other details of the project. It will help the project manager to evaluate the competition level. Through understanding the proper competition level the issues related to the project could be mitigated completely. Goals/ Criteria Criteria Weight Project Delivery Method Design-Bid Build Design-Build CM @ Risk Score Weighted Score Score Weighted Score Score Weighted Score Delivery of the schedule 14 8 112 9 126 10 140 Innovative construction 6 5 30 7 42 8 48 Design level complexity 19 3 57 8 152 9 171 Risk analysis 20 4 80 10 200 8 160 Owner experiences 12 8 96 10 120 5 60 Staff experiences 7 10 70 9 63 4 28 Contractor experiences 7 9 63 9 63 9 63 Cost 8 6 48 9 72 8 64 Control level 7 10 70 10 70 10 70 Total 100 626 908 804 Design-Bid Build, Design-Build and CM @ Risk are three different criteria selected criteria for the project delivery method. Based on the performance the scores are provided. However the column of criteria weighted Colum is fixed for three of the selected processes and the weighted score for the individual processes are generated from the product of criteria weight and score given based on their performance. The behavior and the experiences of the staffs play important role while developing the project. All the project workers available in the project must have proper experiences and idea regarding the project details. If available number of experts and staffs are present in the project implementation then, then there is a huge opportunity for the project owner to complete the project within estimated project budget and allotted time as well. Oversight level and control is also important. Before the implementation of the project the project owners are required to develop proper control on the project before its implementation. The Financial contract type This type of contract is done between the project owner and the project contractors. At the project planning phase, the risks are needed to be evaluated by the project manager and the total budget is negotiated among the project contractors and project team members. For designing the final project contract the project contractors are responsible. Through estimation of the labor cost and other specified cost the margin of benefit can be determined. Considering the compensation of the project cost the project fess are required to be developed. For every extreme and overloaded budget, the project contractors are responsible. The project manager should consider the price that has the lowest bidding. Goals/ Criteria Criteria Weight Financial Contract Type Lump sum contract Guaranteed Maximum Price Contract Cost plus Fixed Fee Contract Score Weighted Score Score Weighted Score Score Weighted Score Construction related fixed capital 15 9 135 9 135 10 150 project schedule 11 9 99 8 88 8 88 production increment 6 10 60 5 30 5 30 Bidding analysis 7 7 49 6 42 6 42 Risk 20 5 100 6 120 9 180 Design 17 6 102 6 102 10 170 Cost related with unforeseen risk 16 9 144 5 80 8 128 Quality 8 9 144 8 64 9 72 net amount 100 833 661 860 The weighted score is the product of score and the constant criteria weight. Based on the performances of the three selected criteria such as the Lump sum contract Guaranteed Maximum Price Contract and Cost plus Fixed Fee Contract the scores are provided. Fixed fee contract: This is another approach that is associated to the contractors and project budget. For evaluating the project budget as the minimal one, this particular approach is very much beneficial. It also helps to provide a margin to the project owner and project contractors as well. Both of the parties are needed to incur proper expense to implement the project. Procurement method The suppliers associated to the project are required to adopt proper bidding method. The competitive procurement technique helps to develop different reasonable and moral strategy to offer proper outcome to the providers. This permits every one of the contractual workers keen on the delicate to present their offer for the delicate. The proprietor additionally applies a similar hypothesis and applies a similar sort of process while choosing the bidder from the connected contractors. The motivation behind this strategy is to give an equivalent and reasonable practice which encourages the proprietor to hold the help of the temporary workers. Negotiation: In this technique of acquisition the proprietor picks a temporary worker who might help him with the agreement. The cost to be paid to the contractual worker is then talked about with the temporary worker. On the off chance that the temporary worker concurs with the citation then the delicate is endorsed. Else the contractual worker can arrange the cost of the venture remembering the hazard factors and the net revenue for the temporary worker. Best value: This particular method does not deal with the low bidding factors that is needed to be undertaken. However, the contractors are required to consider different expertises for developing the project. Goals/ Criteria Criteria Weight Procurement Method Competitiveness Negotiation Best Value Score Weighted Score Score Weighted Score Score Weighted Score Quality 14 9 126 5 70 3 42 Schedule 11 10 110 10 110 10 110 Cost 12 7 84 6 72 8 96 risk 9 9 81 9 81 7 63 Size of the project 10 8 80 3 30 7 70 Contractor's experiences 8 9 72 7 56 8 64 Public related accountability 8 3 24 8 64 4 32 Owner's decision 18 5 90 6 108 8 144 Contractor's expertise 10 10 100 7 49 9 90 total 100 767 640 711 From the score table it has been found that, the score for schedule, cost, owners decision, project size, cost and experiences of the contractors are higher for three of the components such as competitiveness, negotiation and best value than the others because, these are found to be better for the procurement method. However, based on the performance of the stakeholders and the role of other criteria these are scored as higher or lesser out of 10. The criteria score is same for all of the three components. The product of criteria and score are showing the weighted score for the selected criteria. Bibliography Aje, I. O., Oladinrin, T. O., Nwaole, A. N. C. (2016). Factors influencing success rate of contractors in competitive bidding for construction works in South-East, Nigeria.Journal of Construction in Developing Countries,21(1), 19. Ballesteros-Prez, P., Skitmore, M. (2016). Estimating the number of new and repeated bidders in construction auctions.Construction Management and Economics,34(12), 919-934. Ballesteros-Prez, P., Gonzlez-Cruz, M. C., Fernndez-Diego, M., Pellicer, E. (2014). Estimating future bidding performance of competitor bidders in capped tenders.Journal of civil engineering and management,20(5), 702-713. Ballesteros-Prez, P., Skitmore, M., Pellicer, E. and Zhang, X., (2016). Scoring rules and competitive behavior in best-value construction auctions. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 142(9), p.04016035. Ballesteros-Prez, P., Skitmore, M., Pellicer, E., Gonzlez-Cruz, M. C. (2015). Scoring rules and abnormally low bids criteria in construction tenders: a taxonomic review.Construction management and economics,33(4), 259-278. Bilbo, D., Bigelow, B., Escamilla, E. Lockwood, C., (2015). Comparison of construction manager at risk integrated project delivery performance on healthcare projects: A comparative case study. International Journal of Construction Education Research, 11(1), pp.40-53. Burr, A. ed., 2016. Delay disruption in construction contracts. CRC Press. Chan, D.W., Chan, J.H. Ma, T., 2014. Developing a fuzzy risk assessment model for guaranteed maximum price target cost contracts in South Australia. Facilities, 32(11/12), pp.624-646. Ismail, F., Dahan, S. M., Kamar, A. N. N., Zainudin, N., Kie, J. (2014). The Interconnection between Contractors Bidding Strategies and JKR (Jabatan Kerja Raya) Tender Evaluation Factors. Larson, E.W. Gray, C., (2013). Project Management: The Managerial Process with MS Project. McGraw-Hill. Lippman, S.A., McCardle, K.F. Tang, C.S., (2013). Using Nash bargaining to design project management contracts under cost uncertainty. International Journal of Production Economics, 145(1), pp.199-207. Liu, L., Bannerman, P. L., Elliot, E. J., Ewart, G., Atkinson, S. R. (2014, July). Underpricing for Construction Projects--a Double-edged Sword: A Survey of Australian Construction Contractors. Project Management Institute. Oyeyipo, O., Odusami, K. T., Ojelabi, R. A., Afolabi, A. O. (2016). Factors Affecting Contractors' Bidding Decisions for Construction Projects in Nigeria.Journal of Construction in Developing Countries,21(2), 21-35. Wang, W.C., Yu, W.D., Yang, I.T., Lin, C.C., Lee, M.T. Cheng, Y.Y., (2013). Applying the AHP to support the best-value contractor selectionlessons learned from two case studies in Taiwan. Journal of Civil Engineering and Management, 19(1), pp.24-36. Yaqub, E., Yahyapour, R., Wieder, P., Kotsokalis, C., Lu, K. Jehangiri, A.I., (2014), June. Optimal negotiation of service level agreements for cloud-based services through autonomous agents. In Services Computing (SCC), (2014) IEEE International Conference on (pp. 59-66). IEEE. Yu, T., Shen, G.Q. Shi, Q., (2016). Comparing the Performance Quality of Design-Bid-Build and Design-Build Delivery Methods. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 143(4), p.04016111.

My Future Career Becoming a Nurse Essay Example For Students

My Future Career Becoming a Nurse Essay Have you ever thought about what you are going to do in the future? What job will you take? Are you going to take this job just because of the money or because this is what makes you happy? Before and even now, I certainly believed that taking on the right profession was fundamental to my happiness and welfare. If I could choose any job in the world, I would choose nursing. Becoming a nurse is a goal that I want to achieve in the future. Nursing is a great profession that will enable me to show compassion to people; it is a rewarding job; also, it makes me aware of my own health and my family’s health. I want to become a nurse because I love to show compassion to people. The ability to help or save other peoples’ lives is a great incentive for me. When I become a nurse, I know I will see people that are not always in their best condition, but being able to take care and help them recover their health is a reward to itself. I figure that I probably will not get often a ‘thank you’, but knowing and seeing that I make someone overcome his/her illnesses will enough satisfaction if I will know that it was my abilities and skills that made him/her recover. Nursing is a rewarding job because the salary is really substantial. I’m not just going to help other people and enjoy my career, but also have $66,000 salary that I’ve wanted. Imagine the feeling of getting my first paycheck! That must be really, really great. Also I want my parents to be proud of what I’ve achieved, and I can finally help them pay some of the bills. I grew up depending on them, and I don’t want to always depend on them anymore. This time, all I want to do is share them what I have earned. Becoming a nurse also keeps me aware of my own health and my family’s health. When I was a kid, I got pneumonia. I was really, really bad because I also have asthma, so I almost died of it. It was a nightmare for me! If someone in my family gets sick, I want to be the one will help them overcome their illness. I hate to see my loved ones suffering, especially my mother who has a heart problem. I hate to see her when she is hurt, or in pain. What I hate the most is that I want to help her, but there is nothing that I can do about it. Because of this, it just makes me pursue becoming a nurse in the future even more. All in all, I love to show compassion to people. Seeing a very sick person overcome his/her illness is enough satisfaction for me. I’m not just helping other people, but also I can have $66,000 salary that I’ve always wanted; I can finally help my family to pay some of the bills and also make them proud of what I’ve become. Lastly, it makes me aware of my own and my family’s health. I will be able to help myself and my family when some of us are sick. These are the reasons why becoming a nurse is a goal that I want to achieve in the future.

Confession Essays (269 words) - Criminal Procedure, Criminal Law

Confession Double Jeopardy Defendant is allowed to turn down their right to an attorney/lawyer and represent themselves in court. Defendant is allowed to turn down their right to preliminary hearing and go direct to trial. The defendant is permitted the use of a private investigator. State is legally obligated to provide all the evidence to the defendant so they can prepare their defense. Under the California Penal Code, the defendant is allowed to be acquitted (free of their charge) on the ground that the evidence before the court is insufficient to sustain a conviction. A person cannot go to trial if there was a previous trial towards that person with the same charges, even if new evidence is brought up. Known as Double Jeopardy. I think the best part of the movie is when the audience finds out that Mr. Crawford is charged with new charges and Willy has the evidence to convict Crawford for murdering his own wife. I think this is the best part of the movie because it is the big turning point of the movie. Here, we find out that Willy has gun that Mr. Crawford used and a confession to convict him for killing his own wife. I think this movie was worth viewing for our topic. In Forensic Science, the law and court is involved and I think this movie does a good job at portraying the court and how evidence is handled. Questions for test. What is Double Jeopardy? How did Willy lose the case? How did Willy figure out that Mr. Crawford switched the weapons with the officer (Robert Nunally)?

Essay on Criminal Justice and Violent Female Offenders part 2Essay Writing Service

Essay on Criminal Justice and Violent Female Offenders part 2Essay Writing Service Essay on Criminal Justice and Violent Female Offenders part 2 Essay on Criminal Justice and Violent Female Offenders part 2Essay on   Criminal Justice and Violent Female Offenders part  1Stacey  and Spohn found out consistently more lenient treatment of female offenders, even after they checked and controlled for the presumptive sentence, offenders marital status, and if the offender has dependent children. They suggest that fact of gender disparity in sentencing is not a product of insufficient controls for related variables or the use of outdated data sets (Stacey, Spohn, 2006).The effect of the offenders gender is clearly revealed by the effect of the presumptive sentence. However, the offenders gender does influence every sentence outcomes examined regardless of the fact it is a legally forbidden basis for judicial and prosecutorial decisions.Researchers have found out that female offenders are more likely than male offenders to get a downward departure for providing substantial assistance. Besides, female offenders who received that type of departure usually received a larger sentence discount than male offenders in similar situations. All offenders included in the study conducted by Ann Martin Stacey and Cassia Spohn, were convicted of drug crimes, which means that substantial assistance departures would have been given primarily to offenders who was able to provide information leading to the arrest and prosecution of other members in their drug distribution network. It seems doubtful that women would have that type of information or that female offenders would be more likely than male ones to be willing to exchange the information they had for a lighter sentence. Prosecutors may use the action for substantial help to mitigate the sentences of sympathetic offenders, no matter whether they have information they are willing to trade; if female drug offenders get more sympathy than male ones, they are more likely to get substantial assistance departures. On the other hand, there is a possibility that female drug offenders have been arrested and prosecuted in court with the expectation that they would give information about the drug-dealing activities of their boyfriends or husbands. This issue should also be studied, as the topic of equality in criminal justice system is of great importance.Another fact is worth mentioning. While all rehabilitation programs are ready to help all people with criminal past despite their gender, there is a number of programs and services especially for women. For example, Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP): Female Offenders provides female offenders with appropriate help to meet the physical, psychological and social needs of this group. National Directory of Programs for Women with Criminal Justice Involvement provides information about programs available in each state that provide assistance and guidance for women involved in the justice system.Female prisoners constantly attract the attention of the media. However, many experts in the United States say that r esearch in this area is carried out on the insufficient level. Amount of research devoted to the problem of women in prison is just enough to set the existing specific difference in the performance and the serving of sentences in comparison with men. In general, womens community in the United States is characterized by a smaller prison violence, more harmony, less destructive nature of the subculture as compared to men of the prison community (Nagel, Johnson, 2004).Ward and J. Kassebaum investigated violations in prison related to sexual perversions. As a result, they concluded that in the majority of cases in the womens community forced sexual contact is absent.Studies of R. Gialombardo note that in contrast to the male prison community, in womens prisons mutual sexual relationship characterized by harmony, role-playing family life (mom, dad, daughter, brother, sister) dominate.Heffern studied socio-psychological characteristics of women prisoners in the prison in Columbia. Accordi ng to the scientist, the womens prison community is very diverse. She identified three main categories of women prisoners.For the first category of inmates, prison is a center of life in which they are struggling with the administration and other inmates for the right to control the situation and get access to restricted services (alcohol, drugs, extra food, and so on.)The second category consists of female prisoners who have committed unintentional crime, often murder of passion. Their behavior in prison is characterized by denial of their belonging to the underworld. Throughout incarcerated they are trying to recreate in prison conditions usual for freedom, to actively maintain contact with the outside world.The third category of women prisoners are professional criminals, usually serving criminal sentences for acquisitive or selfish and violent crimes. Their behavior in prison is characterized by the adoption of external rules and regulations established by the administration. Ho wever, this behavior is aimed at an early parole for the continuation of the criminal way of life.Tightening of criminal law in the 1980s had a great impact on the growth of female population in prisons of the United States (since 1984 the number of female convicted increased by 100%, men by 51%). Main number of women has been convicted of theft and crime related to drugs. Sufficient number of women were convicted of the murder of husbands or partners, who were violent to them. Thus, the National Council on Offenses of the United States stated that womens prisons in the mid-1990s were significantly overcrowded. This fact has contributed to the development of criminal procedural law of a wider range of measures and penalties, non-custodial from society (Samaha, 2008).It is believed that the majority of female offences does not significantly affect the physical or psycho-social sphere of the person or the society. D. Wagner watched liberated women for 2 years and found that women were 44% less likely than men to commit crime again. According to various sources the number of women who have committed repeated crimes amounts 17% of the total number of women released from prison. While the number of male offenders is approaching 40%. It has also been noted that women commit far fewer crimes if they are in the focus of attention of various community-based services (social, psychological, medical, and others.). The majority of female prisoners have serious economic, medical, psychological and social problems. Especially these problems are exacerbated and come to the attention only in prison.Special social programs for women are more effective than imprisonment. In Pennsylvania, for example, the implementation of such programs on female offenders has significantly reduced repeat offenses. Sample of 1,000 people who participated in the program showed a relapse only in 3.2% of cases. Measures such as house arrest, intensive support are also an effective alternative to im prisonment in case of direct exposure. Thus, the modern American penal science focuses not on punitive, but humanistic traditions in the correction of female convicts.EthicsCriminality of women and its prevention is most acute at the moment, because according to statistics there is a steady increase in female crime in our country. Many scientists have set a goal to explain the phenomenon of female criminality. Scientific community is still debating regarding the psychological or innate biological nature of female criminality, its exogenous or endogenous.Endogenous theory of crime explains the phenomenon of womens criminalization based on psychogenetic factors. It is known that one of the founders of criminology Cesare Lombroso suggested mental predisposition of women to commit crimes. Thus, even the occasional criminals, in his opinion, discover because of the conditions of life, the fraction of moral perversion, which is peculiar to every woman who is in her ordinary conditions in a latent state (Samaha, 2008).Supporters of biological criminology perceive causes of female crime in the physiological and biological characteristics of human. In particular, some scholars of the school explain female aggressiveness through hromosomnogonabora anomalies. Thus, in the normal condition sex chromosomes of women should be of the form XX and of a man XY. Scientists believe that the cause of female aggression lies in the presence of the chromosome of XXY set in some women, ie that they have the extra male chromosome. Authors of endocrine biological theories find the origins of aggression in the anomalies functioning of the endocrine glands and the development of an increased amount of substances that cause nervousness and aggression, such as testosterone.However, a direct correlation between the number of criminal convictions and biological inclinations of women haven’t been found. It is likely that the biological inclinations effect female criminality in an indire ct way: particular qualities of the physiology of women are responsible for their role in society and have thus an impact on the behavior of women, including their criminal behavior and violence.Factors that are considered to be causes of female crime, can be divided into four groups:1) adverse processes in the field of culture, changing the concept of womens culture, its replacement by a variety of substitutes;2) socio-political situation in the country;3) professional activities of women;4) family life and domestic sphere;The first group of factors include:underestimation of the importance of traditional womens society functions (the birth and upbringing of children, housekeeping)priority of male activities (civil service, industry, commerce);depravity of the womens movement that encourages women to perform male functions.These factors lead to a gradual loss of womens culture phenomena such as femininity, meek​​, tenderness, mercy.The second group could includes:incr eased criminality culture imposed on the media;economic crisis, low level of life, unemployment (and the proportion of women among overall unemployed is around 70%);criminal rationalism of being, i.e. limiting the possibility of certain groups of population to provide a normal life by legal means;insecurity, which provokes drug addiction and alcoholism.We should also mention the international conflicts, which represent one of the most criminogenic phenomena. As a result of armed conflicts, women lose their husbands, relatives, place of living. Single women and girls are often subjected to abuse, resulting usually with severe psychological trauma, which significantly reduces the ability to control committed actions.Generating female criminality factors associated with work (the third group) include:deficiencies of legal regulation of womens work (employment problems, inadequate working conditions, lower than men wages);lack of social support for working women (inadequate protection o f labor, lack of child care and employee social benefits).Factors related to the family and household sphere (fourth group) are:family conflicts (in the parent or own family);negative impact of the husband or cohabiting partner (incitement to crime);lack of permanent residence;aggressive advertising of beautiful and fashionable clothes, which combined with the low standard of living creates motivation to commit acquisitive crime.Speaking of female criminal motivation, it should be noted that under normal conditions, women do not tend to commit crimes. Usually dramatic circumstances of their own life push them to the criminal acts and violence. Undoubtedly, approach of division of crime based on gender makes sense, as both quantitative and qualitative content of female criminality has its own peculiarities and differences than male crime. With regard to the quantitative features and differences, for centuries female criminality has always been much inferior than men’s one. The modern pace and style of life force women to take on traditionally male function, which leads to the perception of the elements of male culture, enabling them to assert themselves, but leaves deep psychological frustration and guilt. Hence the feeling of hostility of the world, uncertainty, and as a result, the likely protective aggression, bitterness, social maladjustment.Modern society is constantly developing, social and political attitudes are changing, previously recognized in our society values and moral are replaced by new ones, spiritual culture falls, traditions and customs are broken, the role of woman as a house person changes. The ratio of the level of crime committed by women, to the level of crimes committed by men, equals 1:6. This is despite the fact that the number of women in the country is higher than the number of men (Greenfeld, Snell, 1999).With regard to the qualitative features and differences, we should note that the statistics show that the ratio of selfis h and violent crimes, and other crimes committed by women is different from the situation of men. There are crimes with reflected pattern, formed under the influence of a particular characteristic specifically for women nature or situation in a certain period. The character of changes of female crime does not always coincide with altered male crime.All these factors have a definite impact on female crime and the forms of its manifestation.   It is known that women are more exposed, both physically and mentally weaker than men. But at the same time, women are faster and easier to adapt to the rapidly changing realities of life. Criminality of women is different from mens crime in nature of the crime and its consequences, and in the methods and tools of the crime and the choice of the victim and the confluence of family circumstances. Crimes of women are different from crimes committed by men, they are more emotional, rash. The most common among women are crimes of theft of personal , state and public property, this category of crimes is 15% of the total crime committed by women.Infanticide is a typical crime for women. Recently there has been an upward trend in this category of crimes, especially clearly this trend is manifested in the countryside. Noteworthy is also the prevalence of violent crime among female prisoners, according to statistics, 2% of women are persons convicted of murder and attempted murder, 3% convicted of grievous bodily harm, more than 4% for robbery and aggravated assault in order to capture state, public and personal property.Women most often commit robberies in urban areas, this is due to the fact that cities have more shops, foodservice.   Besides, the larger number of population in urban areas played an important role, since the great mass of the population makes it difficult to reveal this category of crime. Among women, who commit robbery, there are a lot of females, who commit this type of crime constantly, vagrants and begga rs who have no permanent residence. This category of offenders is the most difficult one in terms of conducting variety of activities for the prevention of crimes and criminals correction.Essay on   Criminal Justice and Violent Female Offenders part  3

Marks & Spencers Dividend Policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Marks & Spencers Dividend Policy - Essay Example This paper evaluates the different ways a firm pay out cash to its shareholders such as dividend payout, stock repurchase and new stock dividends as practiced by Marks & Spencer. The first step toward understanding dividend policy is to recognize that the phrase means different things to different people. A firm's decisions about dividends are often mixed up with other financing and investment decisions. Some firms pay low dividends because management is optimistic about the firm's future and wishes to retain earnings for expansion. In this case the dividend is a by-product of the firm's capital budgeting decision. Another firm might finance capital expenditures largely by borrowing. This releases cash for dividends. In this case the firm's dividend is a by-product of the borrowing decision. There is one possible source of the firm's investment outlays and borrowing which is an issue of stock. Thus dividend policy is defined as the trade-off between retaining earnings on the one hand and paying out cash and issuing new shares on the other. (Brealey & Myers, 2003) There are many firms that pay dividends and also issue stock from time to time. They could avoid the stock issues by paying lower dividends. Many other firms restrict dividends so that they do not have to issue shares. They could issue stock occasionally and increase the dividend. Both groups of firms are facing the dividend policy trade-off. In short, companies can hand back cash to their shareholders either by paying a dividend or by buying back their stock. (Carlson, 2001) Most companies pay a regular cash dividend each quarter, but occasionally this regular dividend is supplemented by a one-off extra or special dividend. Dividends are not always in the form of cash. Frequently companies also declare stock dividends. Both stock dividends and splits increase the number of shares, but the company's assets, profits, and total value are unaffected. The distinction between the two is technical. A stock dividend is shown in the accounts as a transfer from retained earnings to equity capital, whereas a split is shown as a reduction in the par value of each share. (DeAngelo, DeAngelo, & Skinner, Special Dividends and the Evolution of Dividend Signaling, 2000) Many companies have automatic dividend reinvestment plans (DRIPs). Often the new shares are issued at a 5 percent discount from the market price; the firm offers this sweetener because it saves the underwriting costs of a regular share issue. Sometimes 10 percent or more of total dividends will be reinvested under such plans. Sometimes companies not only allow shareholders to reinvest dividends but also allow them to buy additional shares at a discount. In some cases substantial amounts of money have been invested. (Scholes & Wolfson, 1989) There is an important difference in the taxation of dividends and stock repurchases. Dividends are taxed as ordinary income, but stockholders who sell shares back to the firm pay tax only on capital gains realized in the sale. However, the Internal Revenue Service is on the lookout for companies that disguise dividends as repurchases, and it may decide that regular or proportional repurchases should be taxed as dividend payments. (Jagannathan, Stephens, & Weisbach, 2000) Stock Repurchase There are three main ways to repurchase stock.